Can You Drink Heavy Water - Deuterium Oxide Safety

You need ordinary water to live, but have you ever wondered whether or not you can drink heavy water? Is it radioactive? Is it safe? Chemical Composition and Properties of Heavy Water Heavy water has the same chemical formula as any other water—H2O—with the exception that one or both of the hydrogen atoms are the deuterium isotope of hydrogen rather than the regular protium isotope (which is why heavy water is also known as deuterated water or D2O). While the nucleus of a protium atom consists of a solitary proton, the nucleus of deuterium atom contains both a proton and a neutron. This makes deuterium about twice as heavy as protium, however, since its not radioactive, heavy water is not radioactive either. So, if you drank heavy water, you wouldnt need to worry about radiation poisoning. Are Small Quantities of Heavy Water Safe? Just because heavy water isnt radioactive doesnt mean its completely safe to drink. If you ingested enough heavy water, the biochemical reactions in your cells would be affected by the difference in the mass of the hydrogen atoms and how well they form hydrogen bonds. You could consume a single glass of heavy water without suffering any major ill effects, however, should you drink any appreciable volume of it, you might begin to feel dizzy. Thats because the density difference between regular water and heavy water would alter the density of the fluid in your inner ear. How Heavy Water Affects Mitosis in Mammals While its unlikely you could drink enough heavy water to really harm yourself, the hydrogen bonds formed by deuterium are stronger than those formed by protium. One critical system affected by this change is mitosis, the cellular division used by the body to repair and multiply cells. Too much heavy water in cells disrupts the ability of mitotic spindles to equally separate dividing cells. Theoretically, youd have to replace 20 to 50% of the regular hydrogen in your body with deuterium to experience symptoms ranging from distressing to catastrophic. For mammals, replacing 20% of the bodys water with heavy water is survivable (although not recommended); 25% causes sterilization, and about 50% replacement is lethal. Other species tolerate heavy water better. For example, algae and bacteria can live on 100% heavy water (no regular water). The Bottom Line Since only about one water molecule in 20 million naturally contains deuterium—which adds up to about five grams of natural heavy water in your body and is harmless—you dont really need to worry about heavy water poisoning. Even if you did drink some heavy water, youd still be getting regular water from food. In addition, the deuterium wouldnt instantly replace every molecule of ordinary water in your body. Youd need to drink heavy water for several days to see a negative result, so as long as you dont do it longterm, its okay to drink. Fast Facts: Heavy Water Bonus Facts Bonus Fact 1: If you did drink too much heavy water, even though heavy water is not radioactive, your symptoms would mimic radiation poisoning. This is because both radiation and heavy water damage the ability of cells to repair their DNA and replicate.Bonus Fact 2: Tritiated water (water containing the tritium isotope of hydrogen) is also a form of heavy water. This type of heavy water is radioactive. Its also much rarer and more expensive. Its created naturally (although very infrequently) by cosmic rays and can also be produced in nuclear reactors by humans.

Drug Abuse And The Consequences Of Drug Addiction

Drug addiction has become prevalent in our societies today such as the use of heroin. Using Marc, Lewis (2011) text â€Å"Memoirs of an Addicted Brain: A Neuroscientist Examines his Former Life on Drugs† this paper focuses on drug abuse, heroin, and the consequences that the users face as they battle their addiction and related problems. In the text, chapter 8 provides a significant background and overview of Heroin as a drug, hence major section of this paper will rely on facts provided within this chapter. In addition, more useful information will be sourced from Chapter 6 which also provides significant facts on the issue that will be addressed later in the paper. Among the main issues that will be addressed in the paper include the reasons for drug abuse and the consequences of drug addiction, with specific reference to heroin. In Lewis’ text, he uses chapter 8 to provide a significant case study of how he became addicted to heroin and how it eventually affected his life. He was eighteen years and with a balanced life that comprised of friends and pleasures of sex that some of them offered. At this time, he also dealt with depression of a broken family. Using heroin at this point was associated with a large indulgence in sexual activities even among his peers. He viewed heroine as a source of courage and form of a rite of passage for other activities that his peers were practicing. His continued use of heroin was so intense that it did not take him long before he became aShow MoreRelatedDrug Abuse And Addiction Have Negative Consequences For Individuals And For Society1321 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"Drug abuse and addiction have negative consequences for individuals and for society† (DrugFacts: Understanding Drug Abuse and Addiction | National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), n.d.). Whether it is illegal substances or it is prescription over use, drug addiction can affect the 18 year old college student or the 70 year old grandmother. Even though drug addiction is still a growing and constant problem each model is fighting to get this problem under control. In this paper we will discuss howRead MoreUnderstanding Drug Use And Addiction. The National Institute1116 Words   |  5 PagesUnderstanding Drug Use and Addiction The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) describes addiction as a, â€Å"chronic disease characterized by drug seeking and use that is compulsive, or difficult to control, despite harmful consequences† (â€Å"Understanding Drug Use and Addiction,† 2016). Long-term use can effect and change a person’s ability to learn, judge, and make decisions. Stress, memory issues, and behavior problems are also common side effects of extended drug use. There is not one single factorRead MoreDrug Abuse And Addiction : Drugs977 Words   |  4 PagesDrug abuse/addiction Jeremy Graham May 11, 2015 Period, 5 Drug abuse and addiction Drug abuse/addiction is a major problem in Indiana that affects many individual. Several solutions such as rehab and drug classes have been tried. Yet, the best solution is taking drug classes. Many people do not understand why people become addicted to drugs or how drugs change the brain to foster compulsive drug abuse. They mistakenly view drug abuse and addiction as strictly a socialRead MoreEffects Of Substance Use And Abuse950 Words   |  4 PagesJournals on the Impact of Substance Use and Abuse Even at this age of raised healthcare awareness there are people who still do not understand the real cause of addictions. A review of Lawrence and Melinda Smith’s article, â€Å"Drug Abuse and Addiction,† reveals that by now there is little and scanty information on why and how people get addicted to various types of drugs. There have been several misconceptions and beliefs as to why people actually use or abuse drugs, several explanations have been put forthRead MoreThe Effects Of Drug Abuse On Adolescents957 Words   |  4 PagesAddiction in Adolescence Every human being is unique, however, at some point in our lives we encounter similar experiences. The majority of all of us will go through the teenage stage and being a teenager is extremely complex and a difficult phase. Teenagers experience physiological, social, emotional and psychological changes. All of these changes are going to be shaped uniquely by the teenager’s unique genetic composition, brain development, environment, cultural background and the community influencesRead Moredrug addiction802 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿INTRODUTION Drug addiction is the chronic disease affecting the brain, and just everyone is different. Drug affect different ways. 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Many substances were also used in medicine derived from certain plants for anesthetics such as opioids from poppy seeds. In addition, nicotine and tobacco products and other hallucinogenic substances were used for recreationalRead Moreearly marriage779 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿Ã¢â‚¬Å"DRUG ADDICTION† A Research Paper submitted to: Maria Victoria V. Balaga Don Pablo Lorenzo Memorial High School In partial fulfillment of the requirements in English IV By: MARK ATLEY INSONG GALVEZ MARIA AI AQUINO HIGA RAIZA VALERIANO JAWARI JOSE ENRIQUEZ NATIVIDAD JR HARVEY MORALES TATI IV-Adelfa Introduction-drug addiction is a very common problem. That usually under the business. addicted Isn’t using drugs. It about what the drug does to

Online Education Free Essays

ONLINE EDUCATION: PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES by Jarrod Novicke ABSTRACT Online Education is a rapidly growing field within a highly competitive educational market. With the advances in technology over the last several years, more universities are offering an online curriculum to a diverse range of students. The increased demand for an educated workforce; has increased the need for additional means of education beyond the traditional in-classroom experience. We will write a custom essay sample on Online Education or any similar topic only for you Order Now Due to this increased demand, institutions are being tasked with developing a reputable form of online education. The program needs to meet the needs of the faculty responsible for delivering the material, a growing student base, and also prospective employers. This study will look at the perspectives and problems faced by both the faculty and students as this medium for education continues to grow. In doing so, we will take a brief look at the history of online education and how its growth has affected students and faculty, both negatively and positively. INTRODUCTION Colaris, Gibson and Harris (2008) defined distance education as asynchronous or remote; computer based, and has an instructional system that supports it. Contrary to what many people believe today, distance education did not begin with the electronic age. The first recorded instance of this form of education was much earlier. Distance education began in the United States as early as the 1800s, when the University of Chicago introduced the first major correspondence by mail program based on the fact that the teacher and student were in different locations (Seibold, 2007). From these early beginnings, distance education has thrived in the U. S. for many reasons such as the expansive geographical distance between U. S. citizens from institutions, the great thirst of our citizens for education, and technologies’ rapid advancement (Casey, 2008). The technological advancement can be seen while tracing the origins of distance education. From the time of the first correspondence program in Chicago, technology has played a major role in the advancement of distance education. During the World Wars, our federal government granted radio broadcasting licenses to over 200 universities. This in turn allowed the use of radio as a medium to provide education delivery to flourish. By the early 1940’s, several schools were using both radio and mail correspondence to educate their students (Seibold, 2007). By the 1970’s and thru the 80’s cable and satellite television became a popular form of educational delivery to distance education students. With the invention of the World Wide Web in 1992, a form of distance education referred to as online education has now become readily accessible (Harasim, 2000). One can define online learning courses as a course that has at least 80% of the content delivered via the internet without traditional classroom interactions (Dykman Davis, 2008). Over the past 20 years, the innovations and technological advancement of the internet has caused an exponential growth and expansion in the delivery of online education. While at first glance this may seem like a positive advancement, there are many problems associated with this new form of distance education. This paper will focus on the growth of this online learning aspect of distance education and will address these perceived pros and cons, along with the perspectives of faculty and students alike. LITERATURE REVIEW Dykman and Davis (2008) wrote a series of three papers and in the second one, used for this research paper, the focus was answering the question of how online teaching is different from conventional methods. The article discusses topics including online course planning and organization, teaching constraints and guidelines, tutorials versus lectures, relationships among teachers and students, and student performance assessments. Bejerano (2008) looked at the increasing trend among colleges and universities of accepting the internet as a new medium of education. The shift from traditional classroom learning to online learning was studied to see whether or not the students who are taking the online courses are getting a similar quality of education as the traditional face to face students. Bejerano also looks at the universities that offer online learning and the students who enroll in these courses. In the article College Distance Education Courses, Lei Gupta (2010) evaluated the benefits and costs from the perspectives of the faculty, student, and institutions. Through their studies they have found and suggested that online education maximizes and facilitates learning more efficiently than traditional student learning. They write that although the benefits of online learning are great, there are also some costs that must be carefully evaluated and considered. Mohamed, Hassan, and Spencer (2011) they looked at and tried to measure the perceived risks student’s feel with online education. Their study developed a valid and reliable scale to measure risk of online education by using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. This study showed that the perceived risks of online education has five risk dimensions and the authors list and explain these five dimensions. In the research paper written by Seibold (2007), the author looked at the pros and cons of online education from several perspectives. In doing so, a brief history of online education was given from its early beginnings as distance education through the mail to the online education we a familiar with today. Also discussed is technologies impact on the growth of online education. GROWTH OF ONLINE EDUCATION Faculty and students are turning to the Internet and online education more and more each year to supplement, or in some cases even replace conventional approaches to classroom teaching. With the advancements in both communication technologies and the computer itself, the internet has turned online education into a powerful new tool for teaching and learning. Many say that these advancements in technology have the possibility of revolutionizing higher education with a wider reach in the marketplace for education and increased access to educational services for the students of various institutions (Dykman Davis, 2008). Online education via the collegiate level has risen at an astounding speed, and it is doing so in ways no one would have foreseen years earlier (Lei Gupta, 2010). Research done by Allen Seaman (2009) illustrates that for six consecutive years the number of students enrolled in at least one online class has continued to grow at a rate in excess of the growth rate of higher education enrollments overall. Their research showed that for the fall of 2008, 4. 6 million students were enrolled online which represented a 17 percent increase over the fall of 2007. In contrast, there were 1. million students taking at least a minimum of one online course in the fall of 2002. The growth of students from 2002 to 2008 represents a 19 percent annual growth rate. Over that same time period the vast majority of the collegiate student body increased at a growth annually of only 1. 5 percent. As of 2008, over twenty-five percent of all higher education students enrolled in at least one course online (Allen Seaman, 2009). Several of these students are considered to be off campus learners and have a wide range of work experience, ages, and family circumstances. At a number of institutes of higher learning however, close to half of the online students are estimated to be in school full-time and are students that are traditionally educated in the classroom that enrolled in an online course for reasons of scheduling or that of convenience. Most of these students are enrolled at public state-run universities, community colleges and other colleges which all offer at the very least a portion of online education (Mayadas, 2009). Virtually all of the institutions of higher learning that have the desire and capabilities to add online courses to their curriculum are currently doing so. The small number of schools that still might launch their first programs online is for the most part, small, and has a minimal impact on the overall online enrollment figures. So who is benefitting from the latest growth in online enrollments? The answer to this question is that the majority of online enrollments are coming from the large, more established schools. These schools are in a better position to be able to increase their offerings of online education. The larger institutions on average teach more students online than any other size of school. The mean number of students who are enrolled online per institution has a correlation positive to that of the actual size of the institution. The pattern may be true for both graduate and undergraduate enrollment levels’, however there is a stronger relationship among the undergraduate population. The larger institutions show a pattern of bigger online enrollments which result in a greater concentration of its online students at just a few universities. As an example, 89 percent of all the online students are studying at universities with more than one thousand online enrollments even though these institutions only make up 38 percent of the ones that offer some form of online education (Allen Seaman, 2009). The institutions that offer these online education programs are actually both public and private, as well as institutions that are for-profit like the Universities of Phoenix, Capella, and Kaplan for example. Overall, the highest rates of growth in online education are located at community colleges and also at the aforementioned institutions that are for-profit. While the for-profit institutions are growing at a fast rate and definitely meet a big need, online enrollment is still dominated for the most part by the more traditional universities who have acquired the skills, faculty acceptance, and infrastructure to allow them to compete effectively (Mayadas, 2009). CONS OF ONLINE EDUCATION Although online education has grown rapidly over the past several years, to the benefit of many, it has not done so without its share of costs/criticisms. One of the factors of online education that is having a major negative impact to the overall acceptance of distance education is the relative ease to which anyone can purchase a degree that is actually fake. The advancement of the internet has created a rise in a new form of graduate school, the diploma mill. It has become extremely easy to create a fake university online that looks like a credible major university simply by using fancy computer graphics and optimizing the search engine so that the school comes up on the first page of any online college searches (Seibold, 2007). Diploma mills are considered any institutions of higher learning that are unregulated and grant degrees with basically few academic requirements, if any. Due to these so called diploma mills, other legitimate institutions offering online courses are having a hard time establishing their credibility. It was estimated in 2002 that the sale of fake degrees topped the $200 million dollar mark around the world. Commercialization is another aspect in higher education resulting in a negative impact to the perception of online education. Commercialization among institutions is on the rise and several universities are now considered to be teaching toward a job. Many see higher education and specifically online education as becoming more and more controlled by business rather than government and because of this, courses are focused on strictly preparing for the job. This may not necessarily be a bad thing, but many say that this intense focus on job preparation leads to a less rounded student (Vukelic, 2011). With the growth in online education, faculty members see many cons in this relatively new form of online learning. First and foremost among faculty concerns is the risk of academic dishonesty increasing. Students that want to cheat will find a way to cheat regardless if the class in online or in a classroom, however research found that it is much easier for a student to cheat in an online class (Nagel, Maniam, Leavell, 2011). The eCollege system of course management continues to make changes in regard to its software packages, however students can simply use screenshots of their test questions and save them to share with other students. For this reason, faculty must think of new ways to assess their students to ensure the validity of the test results (Nagel, Maniam, Leavell, 2011). Faculty also might find that online teaching is extremely time consuming and not as rewarding as they would like. Instituting an online class demands a good deal of organization and continuous monitoring during throughout the course. In the beginning, instructors may not be familiar or trained with the tools and the technology that are available to them which makes the job of developing and translating the good practice’s of the classroom they are used to seeing, difficult to achieve (Bejerano, 2008). Once the course is created, instructors might find the rewards associated with the daily interaction and student contact which is immediate in the classroom, is now lost because of time and space. Instructors often lose their chance to mentor, lead, advise, and become a role model amongst students because of the loss of personal interaction and communication with the student on a daily basis. This doesn’t mean that teacher and student interaction totally disappears, it is just not as rich of an interaction because the online environment is more restrictive in nature. Faculty members that enjoy teaching and are excellent at motivating and engaging their students, often do not find the same dynamic with online education that allow them to show their passion and experience the joy and excitement that you get from teaching face to face (Bejerano, 2008). From a student’s view, there are also cons associated with online education. One of the major issues is that not all students or potential students have access to nor can they afford new computer technology. In some instances a teacher might want his or her students to participate in a chat session on the web or discussion on the web, however a number of students might not have the ability to immediately access the internet or the means financially to obtain a computer with high speed internet, Skype, or chat capabilities (Lei Gupta, 2010). Students are also required in many cases to have an excellent understanding of technologies and advanced skills with a computer. Oftentimes students do not have the patience for difficulties with technology that pertain to a sluggish internet connection or certain other issues related to a computer which results in a high level of anxiety from students evident through frequent email and voicemail messages especially at the beginning stages of an online course. Students are afraid that they may have missed important assignments or that they are not sure of their responsibilities (Lei Gupta, 2010). Another argument of online learning is that the chances for student’s social and academic assimilation into the learning environment or institution are minimized. These are factors that are a known contributor to student success. Basically, students taking an online course miss the campus experiences which link them to other students and faculty. Since this integration with peers and faculty is lacking, some students begin to feel isolation and alienation which could lead to students not completing their degree. However, many of these students are not aware of how important social and academic integration is and thus view online classes as a replacement to in class learning and they in turn miss the face to face educational experience. The traditional classroom setting provides students with not only a great education, but it gives them a community of their peers where they can engage, interact, and be supportive of one another (Bejerano, 2008). Although there are many cons associated with online education, growth has been staggering which leads us to believe that the pros are outweighing the cons. PROS OF ONLINE EDUCATION Around the world universities and colleges are turning to the internet as a new method of instruction at a rapid rate as seen from the rapid growth stated above. Recent research has shown that the effect of online learning has been positive. Studies conducted in the area of legal, communication and social work reported no difference of significance between the traditional forms of education and that of online learning. This is true so long as the student has the proper technology and the technology works well (Seibold, 2007). In fact, the technological skills that are gained through the virtual classroom benefit the student and have become a second learning outcome. In terms of the positive effect online education has had on educational institutions, there are important and significant benefits that have led to the significant growth levels we see today. It has become apparent to educators involved in higher learning that the continued growth and demand of online education is changing the way instruction is delivered in a major way. Probably the most significant positive impact of the technology of online learning is that the limitation of space and time that used to exist has been removed for the most part by networking capabilities. Even during the major budget crisis of the past several years, universities are still embracing the same philosophies and educational missions which are to educate their students. The offering of online courses has allowed institutions to meet the educational needs of those students. Online classes tend to reach a broader audience with students from varying geographic areas than do the conventional classrooms. Online courses can help students who are isolated geographically, disabled, or have extremely busy schedules actually obtain a quality education. Additionally, online learning does wonders to decrease classrooms that have become overcrowded. The online classes allow faculty and institutions to present additional courses at the most popular times demanded throughout the course of the week, which maximizes the resources available that are in short supply by increasing the flexibility of scheduling class. Students that may have had a schedule conflict can simply enroll in an online course. While comparing costs between educating a student in a traditional classroom versus an online course, the latter can decrease the costs of paper as well as the costs associated with photocopying since the majority of communication is done via email. Institutional costs also lessen as its students grow to be more knowledgeable about the multiple resources that are made accessible on the internet. Universities can now communicate effectively with their students and faculty by electronic means which reduces costs of printing class schedules, bulletins, upcoming campus and academic events as well as other forms of advertisements. Students and educators alike believe that by using online learning technology that they are promoting the green revolution, giving them the benefit of personal satisfaction of being socially responsible (Lei Gupta, 2010). An institution’s faculty can also benefit from the use of online learning as a tool for education. An important benefit of online education for faculty is that the online environment is both place and time independent. Online learning provides professors with flexibility and convenience (Nagel, Maniam, Leavell, 2011). Due to the decreasing demand of work, an institution’s faculty is now able to present papers, attend conferences, and take part in university recruiting. An additional benefit of the online learning environment is that it trains students in the same technology that is giving global corporations a competitive advantage and allows them to build communities of international knowledge at the same time. Another positive impact of the steady rise of online learning is that this medium provides opportunities for students and faculty to interact as well as students to interact with each other during online discussions which might promote critical thinking and deep learning. By using online teams and round table type discussions students are sure to develop the sharing of knowledge and the construction of global communities of knowledge (Lei Gupta, 2010). Many faculty members feel that there is a personal dialogue that occurs among them and their students in an online classroom setting that they simply do not get in the traditional classroom. Faculty reported that by using electronic communication, students are able to be involved more than they are in a traditional in-class setting. In general, aculty perceive that students often are more relaxed and open in expressing their ideas when they are blogging and chatting via the internet, as opposed to face-to-face interaction in the classroom. While there are many positive aspects of online education for the institutions and faculty, students also see the positives as well. Students rely heavily on the computer and internet applications when learning in online courses. The teachers have limited face to fac e communication which may remove any misinterpretations that may occur due to possible poor communication skills by an instructor. Students enrolled in an online class can take the class wherever they are in the world. If they are taking a traditional campus course, they have to become accustomed to different classroom cultures, and form various learning styles to accommodate their professors. Students often can do away with this bias through online learning (Lei Gupta, 2010). Another positive in the eyes of students is the flexible nature of the course and the independence they have to work at their own speed. Online students also have the ability to hold a full-time job during the day, managing their schoolwork and studying at night and on the weekends. Students can access courses and engage in online learning from anywhere in the world. Many universities are beginning to account for students with busy family and work schedules. Since many students rely on a steady stream of income to cover bills and other expenses, several universities have turned their marketing efforts to take into account the working adult’s lifestyle. Many accredited institutions are recognizing the need for a program that is time sensitive and are adjusting their curriculum for that reason. If students have certain family and job responsibilities but still wish to carry on with learning and developing in their career, online learning is an excellent option. Students also no longer have to worry about daily parking and commuting issues associated with driving to campus. Not having to drive to class is a positive aspect to a student that is trying to live a more frugal and greener lifestyle. Since the materials, coursework, and teacher is accessible anytime and anywhere, there is not a need to commute to campus which thusly translates to lowering carbon emissions. Without having to travel to class, students are able to save money on gas and are able to decrease the amount of wear and tear that commuting puts on their vehicle (Nagel, Maniam, Leavell, 2011). As you can see, there are several positive factors that have led to the growth in online education FACULTY PERCEPTIONS AND PERSPECTIVES Whether you see online learning in a positive or negative light, it is continuing to grow at a rapid pace and many faculty members have strong feelings and perspectives about it. Faculty members are attempting to adapt to the increasing demand for online education while universities and other institutions of higher education are steering toward online methods of course instruction as an answer to increasing number of student enrollments. Innovation in online education is imperative to not only meet the growing need in the marketplace for higher education, but also to sustain the continued advancement and growth of today’s institutions. In a traditional, classroom-setting education, faculty generally implements a standard 40-40-20 to their workload. This is in reference to the total hours spent instructing a course. Teaching in the classroom accounts for 40% of time spent, 40% spent on course-related research, and the remaining 20% of workload is dedicated to service (Mupinga Maughan, 2008). This formula for teaching, however, can bring about obstacles when applied to instruction of web-based courses. The inherent nature of a successful online course requires a certain level of technical â€Å"know-how†, technical support capabilities, a need for infrastructure, and an altered course organization from that of a traditional course format, which can create a significant disconnect between time spent and compensation earned. It is not difficult for one to clearly understand the concerns that faculty face when expected to provide online course instruction. Unfortunately some professors who have never instructed an online course have mistakenly believed the process would be fairly easy, and flexible, unaware of the significant challenges that exist in the creation of the course program. However, often times, professors are very well aware of the technological difficulties related to online course delivery causing them to be apprehensive over participating in this method of education. Colaris, Gibson, Harris, 2008) Some feel that with the increased demand of time required to effectively educate students through an online course, there should be an increase of compensation to match. However, it is commonly understood by most instructors that additional compensation will not be paid for teaching an online course. Most likely it is the case that additional pay would only be applied if the course enrollment nu mbers become unmanageable or if the technology tools necessary for course development are not provided. These very issues of workload and pay are those that universities and other institutions absolutely must address in order to sustain successful efforts to provide an answer to the needs of online education, while maintaining a focus on achieving their own unique goals within the world of education (Orr, Pennington, Williams, 2009). Additionally, as universities are continually expanding their reach, and aiming to bring in higher numbers of enrollment, further hiring of faculty is necessary to serve the student body as well as redesign and devise innovative methods of online education (Good Peca, 2007). Older generations of students are continually seeking out both new skills and new knowledge to adapt to an ever-changing marketplace and economic landscape, adding to the demand for institutions and universities to provide effective and relevant options for online education (Kolowich, 2009). Simultaneously, institutions of education are continually looking for creative solutions to sidestep tuition hikes as they suffer the microscope of tight budget constraints. Aside from the technological, budget, and staffing concerns that go along with an online course, an important question to ask for faculty members responsible for providing quality online instruction is whether or not the institutions where they are employed are effectively responding to the obstacles facing them in both planning and executing the courses. Overall, most faculty members feel that the institutions are doing a satisfactory job in addressing the concerns, though there are still some specific areas that need adjustment and improvement as this sector of education becomes higher in demand. In terms of compensation and allowance of time off, faculty are well-pleased. These are not however, typical motivating factors for educators. The faculty members at institutions of higher education tend to genuinely enjoy their profession, and are committed to furthering their careers in education. Excelling in the realm of online education instruction only adds to, and broadens the spectrum of their experience, helping them remain competitive in today’s market of higher education where online instruction is no longer just an option, but an expectation of most students seeking higher education. In large part, educators are motivated by concern for meeting education needs of the students, leaving this to be the main factor that drives ongoing dedication. They hold a strong interest in making sure there are ample avenues for students to acquire their degrees and complete their education in a timely fashion. Faculty of higher education believe that they are morally and ethically obligated to provide alternative learning formats for the benefit of the students, while some also feel it is important for students to take part in, and experience what the environment of online learning has to offer. Generally, professors share a similar set of values, with compassion, caring, and commitment to their students’ education at the core, fueling the motivation for teaching. Naturally, the effective development of a quality online course is a legitimate concern across the board. Simultaneously the concern of adequate time allotment is consistently a concern at hand with faculty members. When it comes to online education, a member of faculty serves both as role of instructor as well as the role of facilitator. For an instructor to make a quality online learning experience possible for the students, there is the prerequisite of a higher time commitment from that faculty member. Clearly this concern could be mitigated by additional support staff to take part in the workload of online course development. The professors must be involved with the development of online courses at various levels of the process. They are the sole individuals responsible for the content to be taught in the class, but this allows them a solid understanding of course structure. There are many institutions that are beginning to provide teams of developmental support to work alongside faculty members, to remove some of the pressure, as they will then have the ability to delegate much of the basic development activities to the support staff. For some professors who are accustomed to the freedom and creative flexibility of teaching in a traditional setting, learning to adapt to collaboration with a course facilitator or online course development team can be somewhat of a difficult adjustment. For these, the open access to their course through the online system by administrators or other faculty can cause them to feel uneasy, making it the change in course medium quite challenging to accept. A loss of control at some degree exists, so this challenge to their teaching habits and preferred style of course conduct is still very real to many, even after mastering the technology involved with instructing an online course (Dykman Davis, 2008). However, as a professor gains experience with the technology, process, and systems of online course development, the amount of required ongoing support from other staff will decrease. Many professors feel that the learning curve in transitioning into online course instruction may be significant, but moving forward into this method of educating students is pertinent to the ongoing growth of their careers as well as the future success of their institution. In order to support and enhance an instructor’s success with online classes, it is best that the faculty members have a clear understanding of exactly how their programs work into the bigger picture of the institution’s efforts (Orr, Pennington, Williams, 2009). The members of faculty need to have clarity and specification of their institutions goals and direction to truly be fully committed to online learning. It is then possible for an instructor to ensure that his or her efforts of designing an online course fit nicely within the framework of their institution. Just as traditional classes, it is very important for online courses to fall in line with the objectives of the school goals. By insisting that these objectives be met, an institution can communicate an unambiguous message of the value and significance of the activities crucial to web-based learning programs. This sets up the instructors for a greater level of focus in designing and implementing an online course with the same degree of passion in educating online students, as they express in instructing a traditional classroom. This can likely lead to higher student success and personal satisfaction of faculty. In addition to creating an environment to encourage internal gratification of educators’ efforts, it is essential for universities and other institutions to provide substantial outward recognition of instructors’ online teaching efforts by department. By instilling a stronger system of recognition for online instruction and providing an outline of how opportunity for promotion is possible, instructors are more likely to increase their skills and master online course development in such a way that meets the institutions standards and goals, ultimately fulfilling the student body’s growing expectation of high-quality online education. It is also critical that institution solicit input from the teaching faculty when addressing various quality concerns of online courses and the reality of student learning outcomes. The majority of professors want to ensure that their students receive an excellent education experience, therefore are open to accepting suggestions to improve the overall efficacy of current programs. This cooperation between instructors, staff support and administration will enhance every aspect of the overall design and delivery of online courses. In planning for an increase of online education courses to meet today’s demand, it is imperative that institutions take into account the motivation behind faculty charged with instructing them. By clearly understanding why an instructor is driven to educate, an institution can help show them the value of teaching online. It is then possible to lead faculty members to appreciate exactly how online learning programs are critical in accomplishing the institution’s ability to offer a diversity of courses required to meet the students’ educational needs. Aiding faculty in understanding the true value of online education will increase their proficiency of online class development as well as instruction. This type of support and motivation is a key element in teaching a course online, as faculty members in general need to feel a sense that their efforts add value to the institution where they teach. Online education has become a proven method for fulfilling the learning needs of today’s students. This can be seen from its exponential growth over the past few years, and for universities and colleges planning to further develop and enhance online education courses, they stand to benefit greatly from ongoing research into methods of faculty motivation. STUDENT PERCEPTIONS PERSPECTIVES With online education growing like it is in universities, students are now granted the choice to attend traditional face-to-face classes or choose an online option. Today’s online education opportunities allow students to meet their educational goals in a convenient, flexible, and cost effective manner. While having a bevy of educational options open to them is great, there are many risks that students perceive to go along with the positive aspects of an online education. There is no such thing as a typical student, however online education courses tend to attract mature students hat have several demands on their time so they tend to be in particular fairly discerning regarding their courses. This is the result of the conflicts the course could potentially create with the students’ personal and professional commitments and also because there is a tendency for students to either pay for their own education or be sponsored by their employer. Therefore institutions that pr ovide online education must be conscious of the fact that they are dealing with a student body that value their education and are more than willing to criticize the courses they feel are wasting valuable money and time. These students share in the fact that they invest a substantial amount of time, money, and effort so they are conscious of the way that their investment is being used and/or misused (Tricker, Rangecroft, Long, 2001). As demand for online education continues to rise, online students are seeking programs with the best reputations, so it is imperative that educators strive to meet the highest standards in this regard. The risks a student perceives while making the decision on whether or not to take an online class are many, especially considering those students who are new to the concept of online courses. The student may be attracted to this type of education because of its convenience, but at the same time, they may be concerned about course effectiveness, their ability to interact and communicate with their classmates, and the likelihood of their success. Mohamed, Hassan, Spencer (2011) define risk as â€Å"the variation in the distribution of possible outcomes, their likelihood and their subjective values† (Mohamed, Hassan, Spencer, 2011). The decision to take an online class can involve some risk because in doing so, there could be uncertain or unexpected consequences which may be negative in nature. Potential students might wonder if they will be able to learn online as well as they do in a traditional classroom setting, whether or not they will have communication with their teachers and/or peers, if their grades may suffer, and whether they will be able to finish their course on time and so on. The perception of these various issues, accurate or not, will likely affect potential student’s intention to enroll in an online course. There is a perceived psychological risk that reflects the concern regarding the tension and discomfort that might arise due to enrollment in an online education ourse. Research has shown that some online students often feel more isolated, anxious, frustrated, and confused than a traditional student does (Mohamed, Hassan, Spencer, 2011). In addition, online education students can also experience a reduced feeling of belonging to the class and may miss the participation and discussions associated with a traditional university classroom. It is very important that instructors stay sensitive to the needs of the students, and have programs in place to reduce these emotional reactions by creating a culture of involvement. Finally, there is some research that suggests online students might fear they will be unable to complete their course work because of lack of discipline, self-motivation, and writing skills. Today the attrition rates for online students are 10 to 20 percent higher than those of students in a traditional classroom setting (Dobs, Waid, Carmen, 2009). Performance risk is related to concerns of whether the program will deliver benefits promised or perform as desired. Many students experience some form of technical problems during their course (Mohamed, Hassan, Spencer, 2011). And at times, online students perceive instructors to be less prepared, use teaching methodologies that are not appropriate, and often give bigger workloads than are given in traditional classrooms. Online students also show less satisfaction than their counterparts on campus with the degree of interaction with their instructor and it primarily occurs when they did not grasp the material in the lecture. Additionally, online students have reported that their understanding of the subject increases at a lesser rate and the course held less value than the students participating in a traditional classroom. Further, the perceived risk of time demand involves the fear surrounding the required amount of time and the effort that is required to complete the online course. Many students see the convenience and flexibility of taking online courses as a major benefit, however for those that are full time employees or have obligations with their family; concerns often arise about the demands on their time. In a study of student perceptions in online learning performed by Eom and Wen, the study participants often complained about losing work that was previously saved, the length of assignments, and the slow times of screen loads. Another item of note reported by online students is the frustration they felt with the time that was spent doing online administrative service tasks like ordering textbooks, advising, and library access (Eom Wen, 2006). Students also feel a form of social risk that is related to the concern they have regarding what others will think about their degree. Students might fear that their online degree will not be accepted well by family, friends, or most importantly by employers. This perceived risk is an important hurdle that institutions face in attracting online education students. Finally, the last source of perceived risks that students face is source risk. Source risk is the concern for the credibility of the institution that is offering the online education course. When students are deciding on whether or not to enroll in an online course they often worry about the reputation of the institution, the institution’s location, and whether the online program will accept other institutions transfer credits. The students also may worry that potential employers might question the value of the online education institution in comparison to an education in a traditional manner (Mohamed, Hassan, Spencer, 2011). CONCLUSION Through the research conducted for this paper, it is evident that online education is not only here to stay but growing at a rapid pace. From the beginning of distance education in the early 1800’s to today’s online learning, the advancements in technology have been immense. This advancement in technology has opened up education possibilities to student’s from all walks of life and connected students from all over the world. The first people to embrace this new revolution of online learning were the educators and now with the new and improved online learning tools and amplified opportunities in education, society as a whole is being influenced in ways never seen before. As we delve into the 21st century, the implications behind this newfound educational conversion are beginning to be recognized by the public at large. With it we have seen an extraordinary level of investment, changes in public feelings, and a fury of (sometime not realistic) expectations regardless of the progress that has been made in altering pedagogic and institutional strategies. As we move forward, online education is no longer supplementary or peripheral, it has turned into a vital part of mainstream society (Smith Mitry, 2008). Though we have seen that there are many pros and cons as well as varying perceptions among students and faculty, no one can deny the level of growth in online education over the years. It is obvious from the growth seen that the pros are outweighing the cons as well as the rewards outweighing the risks for both faculty and students alike. Only time will tell when this explosion of growth in online enrollment and the technology advancements will level off but for now online education is here to stay and growing rapidly. Dedication to advancement and growth in online course development by institutions and instructors alike are pertinent to the future of today’s student. References Adams, J. , DeFleur, M. (2006). The Acceptability of Online Degrees Earned as a Credential for Obtaining Employment. Communication Education, 32-45. Allen, E. , Seaman, J. (2009). Learning on Demand. The Sloan Consortium, 1-24 Bejerano, A. (2008). The Genesis and Evolution of Online Degree Programs: Who Are They for and What Have We Lost Along the Way? Communication Education, 408-414. Casey, D. (2008). The Historical Development of Distance Education Through Technology. Tech Trends, Vol. 52, No. 2. Colaris, S. M. , Gibson, S. G. , Harris, M. L. (2008). Technology Acceptance in an Academic Context: Faculty Acceptance of Online Education. Journal of Education for Business, 355-359. Columbaro, N. Monaghan, C. (2009). Employer Perceptions of Online Degrees: A Literature Review. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, Vol. 7, No. 1. Conceicao, S. C. O. (2006). Faculty Lived Experiences in the Online Environment. Adult Education Quarterly, 26-45. Dobbs, R. , Waid, C. , Carmen, A. (2009). Students’ Perceptions of Online Courses – The Effect of Online Course Experience. The Q uarterly Review of Distance Education, 9-26. Dykman, C. , Davis, C. (2008). Online Education Forum. Journal of Information Systems Education, Vol. 19, No. 1. Eom, S. Wen, J. (2006). The Determinants of Student’s Perceived Learning Outcomes and Satisfaction in University Online Education: An Impirical Investigation. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, Vol. 4, No. 2. Good, K. Peca, K. (2007). The Hidden Hypocrisy of University Faculty Regarding Online Instruction. Curriculum and Teaching Dialogue, 267-277. Lei, S. Gupta, R. College Distance Education Courses: Evaluating Benefits and Costs from Institutional, Faculty, and Students’ Perspectives, Distance Education Vol. 130, No. 4. Maughan, G. R Mupinga, D. M. (2008), Web-Based Instruction and Community College Faculty Workload. College Teaching, 56. Mayadas, A. (2009). Online Education Today. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, Vol. 13, No. 2. Mohamed, F. , Hassan, A. , Spencer, B. (2011). Conceptualization and Measurement of Perceived Risk of Online Education. Academy of Educational Leadership Journal, Volume 15, No. 4. Nagel, S. , Maniam, B. , Leavell, H. (2010). Pros and Cons of Online Education for Educators and Students. International Journal of Business Research, Vol. 11, No. 6. Orr, R. , Pennington, K. , Williams, M. R. (2009). Institutional Efforts to Support Faculty in Online Teaching. Innovative Higher Education, 34, 257-268. Seibold, K. (2007). Employers’ Perceptions of Online Education. The University of Oklahoma Thesis, 1-130. Smith, E. , Mitry, D. (2008). Investigation of Higher Education: The Real Costs and Quality of Online Programs. Journal of Education for Business, 147-152. Tricker, T. , Rangecroft, M. , Long, P. (2001). Evaluating Distance Education Courses: The Student Perception. Assessment Evaluation in Higher Education, Vol. 26. Vukelic, B. (2011). Employer’s Evaluation of Online Education. DAAM International, 1471-1472. How to cite Online Education, Essay examples

E-Services in Cambodia free essay sample

The day length varies from 11 hours 29 minutes to 12 hours 48 minutes without twilight. Mean maximum and minimum temperature range among 30 to 36 °C and 21 to 25 °C respectively. Annual rainfall is 1,343 mm mostly during May to November. The national economy of Cambodia similar to many other developing countries are largely based on agriculture and income-earning opportunities. 90% of Cambodian population makes its living from agriculture. Agricultural development becomes important not only for food and livelihood security of the rural families, but also as a support for industrial progress. Most of Cambodian farmers are poor and live under extreme agroecological, socioeconomic constraints and fear of unrest of war. The poor farmers with small and scattered holdings are surviving on rain fed, mono cropped and rice based farming. Cambodia is rice exported country of mid 1960s has now annual shortage of about 50 000-70 000 tons. Out of exported rice, Cambodia has also exported many agricultural products such as timbers, fish, maize, rubbers, soybean, ground nuts, sesame, jute, cotton and tobacco. These products have been used very low by Cambodian people, because of lacking technology and facilities to improve qualities for food consumption. Agricultural sector in Cambodia contributes about 45 percent to the GDP, and more than 80 percent of the population earns their livings from the agriculture. Apparently, a process of agricultural development is considered to be an effective approach to promote the economic growth with a broadest possible base. Nonetheless, the development of this sector is mainly constrained due to the exceptionally low productivity if compared with the neighboring countries. Research on agricultural development in developing countries has clearly shown that the fundamental problem of agricultural growth is an agricultural education as it plays a vital role in providing qualified manpower for agricultural requirements and conducting agricultural research, thus providing farmers with new techniques of production and new input. Indeed, innovation of technology and management capacities for more intensive and modernized griculture becomes paramount to maximize agricultural output to ensure food security and to alleviate rural poverty in the country. Needless to say, this can be accomplished through the upgrading of human resources employed in the sector at a ll levels from the basic education to higher education. Cambodia has two rice crops each year, a monsoon-season crop (long-cycle) and a dry-season crop. The major monsoon crop is planted in late May through July, when the first rains of the monsoon season begin to inundate and soften the land. Rice shoots are transplanted from late June through September. The main harvest is usually gathered six months later, in December. The dry-season crop is smaller, and it takes less time to grow (three months from planting to harvest). It is planted in November in areas that have trapped or retained part of the monsoon rains, and it is harvested in January or February. The dry-season crop seldom exceeds 15 percent of the total annual production. The per-hectare rice yield in Cambodia is among the lowest in Asia. The average yield for the wet crop is about 0. 95 ton of unmilled rice per hectare. The dry-season crop yield is traditionally higher, 1. 8 tons of unmilled rice per hectare. New rice varieties (IR36 and IR42) have much higher yields, between five and six tons of unmilled rice per hectare under good conditions. Unlike local strains, however, these varieties require a fair amount of urea and phosphate fertilizer (25,000 tons for 5,000 tons of seed), which the government could not afford to import in the late 1980s. The main secondary crops in the late 1980s were maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, groundnuts, soybeans, sesame seeds, dry beans, and rubber. According to Phnom Penh, the country produced 92,000 tons of corn (maize), as well as 100,000 tons of cassava, about 34,000 tons of sweet potatoes, and 37,000 tons of dry beans in 1986. In 1987 local officials urged residents of the different agricultural regions of the country to step up the cultivation of subsidiary food crops, particularly of starchy crops, to make up for the rice deficit caused by a severe drought. Animal husbandry has been an essential part of Cambodian economic life, but a part that farmers have carried on mostly as a sideline. Traditionally, draft animals water buffalo and oxen have playe a crucial role in the preparation of rice fields for cultivation. In 1979 the decreasing number of draft animals hampered agricultural expansion. In 1967 there were 1. 2 million head of draft animals; in 1979 there were only 768,000. Cambodias preferred source of protein is freshwater fish, caught mainly from the Tonle Sap and from the Tonle Sab, the Mekong, and the Basak rivers. Cambodians eat it fresh, salted, smoked, or made into fish sauce and paste. A fishing program, developed with Western assistance, was very successful in that it more than quadrupled the output of inland freshwater fish in three years, from 15,000 tons in 1979 to 68,700 tons in 1982, a peak year. After leveling off, output declined somewhat, dipping to 62,000 tons in 1986. The 1986 total was less than half the prewar figure of some 125,000 tons a year. Saltwater fishing was less developed, and the output was insignificant, less than 10 percent of the total catch. According to the First Plan, fisheries were projected to increase their annual output to 130,000 metric tons by 1990. II. Potentiality of paddy production in Cambodia Paddy Production Wet rice is a unique crop in many ways: It is a traditional, reliable and appreciated stable food †¢ It provides a livelihood for many people (for example some 75 percent of the people living in the Lower Mekong Basin) †¢ It can grow in places that are unsuited for other crops, including waterlogged or inundat ed areas †¢ It can be stored for months or years, if need be †¢ It is rather robust towards pests, and very robust towards weeds †¢ It can be raised within the period of a monsoon rainfall Water for cultivation Having developed in a context of abundant water availability, traditional wet rice cultivation is not water-efficient at all. Production of 1 kg milled rice can require the availability (if not consumption) of 3-6 m3 of water, including various losses and return flows. The monsoon rainfall in Cambodia, where most paddy fields are rain fed, with others supplied by seasonal flood water, and/or from irrigation. The seasonal variation is rather predictable, but the cultivation has adapted so closely that small deviations from the normal pattern can have a significant effects. This is particularly the case for the small dry season, a dry spell of perhaps around a couple of weeks not long after the onset of the wet season. A protracted and severe small dry season after transplanting can seriously affect the annual rain fed crop. 2. The traditional cultivation systems a. Rain fed rice cultivation -The cropping system Rain fed rice cultivation is linked to the rainfall. Over the centuries, the timing and duration of the cultivation cycle have adjusted accordingly, depending on local soil conditions. Due to uncertain rainfall, risk aversion is a strong consideration in choice of technology and in technological innovation for rain fed lowland rice. Traditionally, seeds are produced simply by retaining a portion of the harvest. Better seeds can make a visible difference, both regarding yield and robustness, but must be bought from the good seed keepers in the local area at intervals of a few years. Also, fertilizers can highly improve both the yield and the resilience of the crops. However, the opportunity for its application depends on the rainfall. The size of the land holding is important to the viability of cultivation of rice as well as many other crops. Land holdings in Cambodia tend to be minimal. One among other reasons is the increasing population combined with generation shifts. The farming system Traditional farming systems provide a balance between the availability of land, water and labor, in response to household needs and market demands. Paddy cultivation is highly labor-intensive during transplanting and harvest, but less so in other periods, and not at all outside the cultivation season. Therefore, it can conveniently be combined with other occupations. A traditional Cambodian farming system would comprise paddy cultivation, livestock and palm sugar production. Todays farming systems can be more diverse. Examples of their elements are, A typical Cambodian cultivated landscape is recognised by its sugar palms. A sugar palm can produce 25-50 kg sugar per season (which is 5-7 months), providing a supplementary occupation and cash income. Trees that are unproductive for sugar can supply leaves for thatch-making, mats or rice bins, and can eventually be used for construction and fuelwood. Sugar production is labor-intensive and can compete with Labor for other purposes. Also, it requires fuelwood. It is regarded as a hard way to earn an income and is now in decline. The agricultural value generation Cultivation generates a substantial value upstream and downstream of the farm level, in connection with production and supply of inputs, and processing and distribution of outputs. Rice milling is capital-intensive and is provided by speciali zed operators outside the village. The millers often serve as wholesale buyers. They may provide loans to the farmers with the next crop as collateral, or the rice can simply be sold some time before it is harvested. Few Asian paddy farmers have direct access to (or exposure to) an open market. Some countries see a rather monopolized distribution at the wholesale level. Many governments try to square the circle between appropriate revenue at the farm level and affordable food to the urban poor, applying gentle or more strict regulation of trade and/or prices. Conditions can be quite different for crops other than rice an aspect that can favor a certain crop diversification. b. Irrigated rice cultivation The cropping system Small parts of rain fed rice areas have irrigation or supplementary irrigation. A higher reliability of access to water reduces a major risk and provides opportunities for innovation, provided that technology, skills and inputs are available. This requires coordination of the development of irrigation services and agricultural education and services. Where raw water is available for dry season irrigation, it becomes possible to raise two (or perhaps even three) crops per year an obvious opportunity, so much more because the dry season yield is much higher that the wet season yield (due to the higher sunlight radiation from clear skies). A shift from one to two crops require a shift from long-duration to medium- or short duration varieties. For example, a medium-duration variety can be grown in the wet season and a short-duration variety in the dry season. The farming system Sharing an irrigation system requires an even stronger collaboration than rain fed cultivation, and ability to collaborate is one of the several success criteria for new systems. Farmers Water User Communities (FWUCs) are promoted by Ministry of Water Resources and Meteorology (MOWRAM) in support of de-central support to operation and maintenance. Some of these work well, while many others are in need of consolidation, faced with complex new challenges and a need of close collaboration. If water is available but sparse in the dry season, a part of the land can be cultivated with crops other than rice. The soil quality, taken as a given without irrigation, get a new significance in connection with the new potential cropping opportunities. Soil conditioning becomes a new requirement in connection with crop diversification in areas that are not immediately suited for crops other than rice. Land becomes an even more precious production factor when irrigation is available, as reflected by a higher price. This makes sense, because of the higher revenue that can be generated, but it also imposes a pressure on the land ownership in case of social shocks, such as failed crops or illness in the family, where households risk to lose their land and turn to sharecropping. This is a visible tendency in newly irrigated areas. The need for supplementary occupations remains, one reason being the moderate income generated from rice cultivation. Households that combine paddy cultivation and livestock will typically earn more from the latter. Cattle and buffaloes can feed on marginal lands unsuited for cultivation, and on by-products such as straw, husk and bran. They provide manure, and draft animals can generate a cash income from transport and ploughings. Further, cattle and buffaloes provide capital for emergencies (such as medical treatment costs in case of illness in the family). The agricultural value generation A second annual crop will highly benefit from more external inputs seeds and fertilizer- and will in turn supply much more rice to the market, considering that a substantial part of the first crop from a small land holding is consumed by the household. This amplifies the value (and livelihoods) generated before and after the cultivation hopefully to the benefit of the farmers as well as society as a whole. 3. Traditional gender roles There are some traditions in connection with the task allocation between the household members. These traditions are not strictly observed, however, and all hands are at work during busy periods. 4. Trends Traditional paddy cultivation is developing in response to challenges, such as for example: †¢ A stronger market demand for crops other than rice including vegetables and biofuel crops, as well as a stronger demand for meat; †¢ a stronger competition for raw water in the dry season, related to development of irrigation infrastructure and intensified cultivation; and/or †¢ a stronger exposure to competition, related to improved transport infrastructure, porous borders, and regional and international promotion of lower trade barriers. Also, inevitably, modern lifestyles will reach even remote, traditional farming households. A cash income is needed for clothes and kerosene (or electricity where available), and every household strives to achieve a TV, a hand phone, and a motorbike. In many cases, this requires paid off-farm employment by one or several household members typically young adults, who migrate to the towns in search of work. III. Quality a. Milling and reprocessing plants Milling and reprocessing plants are being upgraded with high capacity and modern technology to ensure quality of rice. The global milled rice trade in 2010 has been estimated at around 31. 3 million tons, compared to 29. 7 million tons in 2009. However, the demand for the import of medium and low-quality milled rice has been on the increase in Asia, due to the weather problems in the Philippines, crops failure and reduced subsidy on fertilizers in Indonesia, as well as the requirement by some countries in the region to fill in reserve stock. It is estimated that milled rice trade in Asia may reach 14. 5 million tons in 2010, and at the same time, the milled rice price may increase and fluctuate. Overall, the regional and global milled rice trade has high growth potential for the medium and long term, but there are some down-side risks, due to factors such as changes in prices resulted from changing economic and political landscape in every country across the globe. The potential for increasing milled rice trade could be attributed to factors such as population and economic growth and globalization that imply changes in lifestyle and taste in rice consumption. However, the global milled rice markets are protected and highly subsidized because of its political sensitivity and paddy rice growing tradition being important in the context of national religion and food security. Nevertheless, such developments provide an opportunity for Cambodia’s milled rice export into the global markets. Milling Rice Cambodian farmers take immense pride in having commenced construction of International standard rice mill in Cambodia. The state-of-the-art high capacity paddy-to-white rice mill in the Udon region is anticipated to be commissioned in Q3 2012 and represents the first of multi-phase investment strategy and deep-rooted commitment to the country. Significantly larger milling lines are planned for commissioning throughout 2013-2015. The complete milling operations are being designed from the ground up by world-renowned rice experts with unparalleled expertise in advanced rice milling process and technology currently used by the world’s most successful rice millers. The advanced mill design will provide immense flexibility in processing capacity enabling us to handle large scale paddy in short harvesting periods without affecting quality. All mills will be fully equipped with state of the art rice milling, grading, sortexing equipment from Japan and modern packing facilities to ensure consistent production of products to the highest standards whilst meeting the highest stringent quality and safety requirements of the national and international food and retail industries. Utilising multipass technology consisting of whitening and polishing, we can ensure efficient removal of bran and an extremely clean white appearance to the individual rice grains. Our optical sorters look at each individual grain of rice detecting shape, length and colour which guarantees uniformity and an average grain length. Reprocessing plants Until recently, Cambodian farmer didnt have access to high-quality rice seed. For years, the farmer did what most Cambodians do when it’s time to plant their fields: use leftover seed from a past harvest. But the quality of the resulting crops tended to be poor, producing rice that was often pale brown, small, and lacking in aroma. As a result, buyers and rice millers offered low prices, and his sales and income suffered. Almost of Cambodian farmer finally has access to high-quality seed. On the advice of program agronomists, since 2000 they planted a small test plot of the Phka Rumdoul variety to be used exclusively for re-planting. Phka Rumdoul is one of 10 rice varieties recommended by the Cambodian government for their high productivity, quality, and market value. Cambodian farmer harvested the test plot four months later to great success. Though the initial plot was small at 1,500 square meters, the harvest provided enough seed to plant his entire farm of five hectares next season. Program agronomists estimate that the improved seed – combined with Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries of Cambodia planting methods – will save them an estimated 70 percent on seed inputs and increase their sales by roughly 100 percent, both through increased production and higher prices when he sells. Lack of high-quality seed is a major hindrance to Cambodia’s rice industry. If the country hopes to reach the government’s target of exporting 1 million tons by 2015, Cambodian farmers must improve the quality of their product to make it more desirable to overseas markets. Increasing access to high-quality seed – in addition to good agricultural practices and improved marketing techniques, both of which Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries of Cambodia is addressing – is crucial to this happening. About 5,352 rice Cambodian farmer receiving technical assistance from Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries of Cambodia, a number that will grow to 30,000 over the life of the program. They have no doubt that Phka Rumdoul can find a market outside of Cambodia. â€Å"These seeds are high quality. You can tell just by looking,† they said one recent afternoon, sifting the grain through his fingers. â€Å"With good seeds and Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries of Cambodia techniques, I’m confident that I can produce high-quality, tasty rice. † b. Good and fertile soil condition and fertilizer usage Farmer use limited chemical fertilizer and natural fertilizers to its actuality: produce high yield and good quality paddy and good tasted rice. Fertile soil condition At the time of writing this report there were no data available on the degree of erosion in Cambodia. But because of the high vulnerability of soils to erosion in Cambodia and the accumulated impact on agriculture and the environment, attention urgently needs be given to the problem. That need is underscored by the following facts: Some 63 per cent of Cambodia’s forests are located in mountainous watershed areas (Ministry of Environment, 1994), much of which has been extensively logged, deforested or degraded. Loss and reduction of the vegetation cover leads to exposure of the soil to sunlight and heavy rainfall, which speeds up the decomposition rate and therefore decreases organic matter in the soil. The process also brings about changes in the physical and chemical soil structure. Consequently, the soil undergoes crusting, and the water filtration, and water and nutrient retention capacity are reduced. The end result is intensive run-off and erosion; Some provinces in Cambodia, sheet erosion can be seen as silt which has collected behind cut logs and stumps in the fields, while rill erosion occurs in some fields only three months after clearing and burning the forest for farming. When that occurs, the actual amount of top soil being lost, measured from the top of the remaining grass and tree stumps to the soil surface, is an estimated 1 to 1. 5 cm. The fact that rill erosion has already begun in some places suggests that the yearly top soil loss is very serious. Farmers have reported that yield decreases about 20-25 per cent in the second year of cultivation, and about 40-50 per cent in the third year on wards. Soil loss through erosion can be observed at coffee and hevea farms where the natural vegetation cover has been completed cleared, leaving the soil surface uncovered between the rows of young seedlings. Erosion occurs not only in the upland areas but also in the lowland areas. In practice, water run-off occurs on all land, and the top soil is lost when no protective and conservation measures are in place. In Cambodia, however, few people understand that erosion is a serious problem in the rain fed lowland areas. In addition, population pressure in the rain fed lowlands is triggering a chain of events which will lead to intensive run-off, erosion and a reduction in the groundwater recharge. Those events include: Excessive collection of fuelwood from woodland and forest areas; Overstocking and overgrazing (although the number of animals is increasing, the fodder supply is decreasing); Increased run-off of water from rice fields. Because dikes in some areas, for example, in Svay Rieng, are not high enough to contain rainwater, the run-off contains a great of nutrient. Fertilizer usage The average rice yields in Cambodia over the past five years have been relatively constant, varying between 1. 2 and 1. tons/ha in the monsoon season and 2. 5 to 2. 7 tons/ha in the dry season. During 1995/ 96 a considerable increase in rice yield was recorded: 1. 64 tons/ha in the monsoon season and 3. 0 tons/ha in the dry season (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1995). That rise in yield has b een linked to good weather conditions, increased use of fertilizer and the expanding cultivation of high-yielding varieties in the dry season1 . For other important secondary crops the yield has remained relatively constant. The average yield of cassava is 6. 61 tons/ha, sweet potatoes 4. 16 tons/ha, mung beans 0. 78 tons/ha, sugar cane 27. 29 tons/ha and soybean 1. 7 tons/ha (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1995). Soil fertility depends on the agro-ecosystem. There are four important rice agro-ecosystems in Cambodia: rainfed lowland rice; rainfed upland farming; deep-water or floating rice; and dry-season (mostly flood recession) rice. While declining soil fertility is increasingly affecting the rainfed lowland agro-ecosystem, the soil fertility in the other systems can be restored through yearly siltation or through the clearing of forest areas. Unfortunately, the rainfed lowland agro-ecosystem is the most important in Cambodia because that area covers about 85 pe r cent of the cultivated area of the country. Rice in that ecosystem is commonly grown on Ultisols and Alfisols (Reyes and others, 1995). Those soils, especially Ultisols which comprise the most common rainfed lowland soil, are sandy, acidic, extremely infertile and low in organic carbon and cation exchange capacity. The rainfed lowland areas are badly degraded, especially where land settlement has continuously occurred over hundreds of years (for example, Oudong in Kampong Speu province, and Bati in Takeo province). In those areas, the soils are very sandy and the top soil has been seriously depleted or eroded. IV. Price, Tax-free and Market of Cambodian rice a. Cambodian rice price in the market Cambodian rice’s price is competitive, especially fragrant rice. Cambodian milled rice is becoming more popular throughout Asia, particularly in Malaysia, which is the number one importer of milled rice from the Kingdom. The price of Cambodian paddy rice is 30% to 40% cheaper than its neighbors Thailand and Vietnam. This low profit margin is a competitive advantage but unofficial fees, high transportation costs and high processing costs make this less significant. Exporting paddy rice is a lost. If processed domestically, some byproducts such as broken rice, husk and bran can be used as important inputs for aquaculture and animal breeding that enable farmers to earn extra income. With more investment in modern rice mill facilities, Cambodia can increase its production of quality milled rice for the growing international market and boost the reputation and international recognition of the Cambodian milled rice standards. In this connection, the Royal Government must address the following issues to increase domestic value-added: High electricity price Electricity represents 25% of the total processing costs. This fades Cambodia’s competitive advantage and the situation can be worse taking into account high and volatile oil price. High energy price is an obstacle to the expansion of the irrigation systems. In the low land Mekong plain, petroleum products are used to pump water into irrigation canals. Therefore, high energy prices limit the ability of farmers to plant two paddy crops a year and to increase yields. For instance, urban dwellers pay 18 20 cents per kWh, while those living in the rural areas are forced to pay up to 30 90 cents, compared to 10 cents in Vietnam. Unreliable supply and high electricity price force rice mills to use their own diesel generators which cost them 12. 60 dollars or 2. 2% per ton of rice, compared to 23. 38 dollars or 4. 1% per ton if electricity is used instead. High transportation cost Poor transport infrastructures such as roads, railways, warehouses, and handling equipment increase rice price. To transport one ton of rice on 100-km road, Cambodian farmers must spend 15 dollars, while this costs only 4 dollars and 7. dollars in Thailand and Vietnam respectively. Moreover, the number of handling equipment and port-nearby warehouses are not adequate, a major challenge for rice export especially during rainy season. Lack of access to and high cost of credit Lack of access to and high cost of credit decrease domestic value-added and hinder milled rice expor t. Limited access to credit, both for working capital and investment outlays, represents an obstacle for rice millers to stockpile paddy rice and modernize their processing machineries. However, given the sound and vibrant banking system and a large amount of available credit lines, the capital and the costs of financing should not be a problem. The problem is that bank intermediaries do not clearly understand the risks and the expected returns from agriculture investments, as the majority of bankers believe that agriculture is a high risk and low return sector. Moreover, lack of borrowers’ financial information and records make it more difficult for the banks to assess the repayment capacity and the status of the borrowers. b. Tax-Free for Cambodian rice export Nowadays, Cambodian rice can export to some countries in the world is tax? free, e. g. , the EU Countries, Russia and China. However, the Ministry of Economy and Finance has issued a prakas that will exempt rice producers from a 1 per cent tax in a bid to stimulate rice production and exports. The prakas, or edict – dated October 11 and signed by Minister of Economy and Finance – rescinds the tax on rice production and milled rice sales for three years. The move comes as the Cambodian government attempts to close in on its goal of exporting 1 million tonnes of milled rice by 2015. President of Loran Import-Export Company, said was not aware of the prakas, but added that the tax relief would help the countrys rice exports as soon as it was implemented. Rice exporters have long insisted that Cambodia remove domestic rice production taxes, Minister said. Thailand and Vietnam do not have such taxes, and the removal of the tax would put Cambodia on a more equal playing field, he said. It would encourage exporters, including me, to be more motivated to export. General director of Rural Development Bank, said he was not sure of the significance of the prakas yet but he supported the ministrys attempt to push milled rice production. The ministry had tried to facilitate milled rice production very much. They have pushed hard for tax exemption of export,. As a relatively new player in the milled rice market, Cambodia faces a steep learning curve. However, with a surplus of 3. 5 million tons of paddy rice (equivalent to 2 million tons of milled rice), Cambodia has the potential to soon be among the top five milled rice exporters in the world. More importantly, growth in the agricultural sector will translate into more economic opportunities for Cambodia’s vast rural population. While not a silver bullet, the success of the rice sector is an exciting and potentially crucial driver in Cambodia’s prosperous and equitable development. c. Market Milled rice market is heavily protected and import procedures vary from one country to another. As Cambodia is a new player in milled rice market, it must face a steep learning curve and improve its export capacity to penetrate the international market. According to data from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Malaysia imported over 7,000 tonnes of a total 25,700 tonnes exported. Poland is the second-largest importer, importing 5,880 tonnes in the first month of the year, and France the third largest, importing over 4,300 tonnes. The of Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and director of the single-window secretariat for facilitating milled rice exports, said though Malaysia ranked highest for milled rice exports, Cambodia could further capitalist on Malaysian demand for fragrant milled rice. Cambodia needs to diversify its exports to better take advantage of the Malaysian market, Vanhorn added. But Cambodia also still faces challenges in managing the use of different seeds grown in different areas, adding that officials could not always control the quantity of these unspecified seeds â€Å"According to these figures, we hope we reach our target, but anything can happen in the future,† Minister said, adding that â€Å"rice exports can be affected by many other factors†. The Asian market is huge for rice exporters, with Malaysia importing from Thailand and Vietnam as well. Malaysia imports a lot of rice to supply its market demand from Thailand and Vietnam, and now they also turn to Cambodia because of competitive prices. Cambodia announced two major bilateral trade agreements last month, with the Philippines and Thailand, that are expected to further expand the country’s rice export sector. Over the last few years, Cambodia has emerged as a major rice exporter in the region, due in large part to the Royal Government of Cambodia’s recent expansion of its agricultural sector. Agriculture, led by rice farming, contributes to roughly a third of the country’s GDP and has immense potential for strengthening Cambodia’s economic growth, accelerating poverty reduction, and improving the living standard of its citizens. As part of this agenda, in 2010, the RGC adopted a new Policy Paper on Paddy Production and Rice Export, better known as the Rice Policy, to promote diversification of Cambodia’s economic sectors by catalyzing growth in paddy rice production and milled rice export to match the growth seen in the garment and service sectors. In his keynote address at the policy’s launch, Prime Minister said: â€Å"The policy aims to ensure that we grab the rare opportunity to develop Cambodia in the post global financial and economic cataclysm. † If Cambodia’s rice export sector were to reach its full potential, it could produce 3 million tons of milled rice, with the total export value amounting to $2. 1 billion (approximately 20% of the GDP) and an estimated additional $600 million (approximately 5% of the GDP) to the national economy. It would also boost employment and income for agricultural farmers who make up more than 70 percent of the population living in rural area s. To better understand the bottlenecks in the rice sector, The Asia Foundation, in partnership with the AusAID-funded program, â€Å"Cambodia Agricultural Value Chain† (CAVAC), hosted a series of consultative forums last year in three provinces – Kampong Thom, Kampot, and Takeo – with stakeholders from the private sector (farmers, seed producers, agro-business owners, exporters) and the public sector (Ministries of Agriculture, Commerce, and Water Resources Management, provincial governors, provincial departments of line ministries, and local authorities). Approximately 370 participants attended the workshops and discussed how to create business-friendly environments (i. e. competitiveness and productivity, access to finance, access to markets), and the technical aspects of rice production (use of fertilizers and insecticides, seed categories, and availability of water sources). The insights were frank and eye-opening. Although the challenges are significant, the o pportunities for the sector are greater. Secretary of State for the Ministry of Economy and Finance, optimistically predicted that the RGC can achieve its target for milled rice: â€Å"With regards to RGC’s rice export target in 2015, we may achieve up to 80 percent of the 1 million tons planned. This should include the milled rice to Vietnamese, Thai, and non-EU markets. † Implementing a strategic framework like the Rice Policy is just the beginning. To increase the paddy rice production to meet market demand and promote the export of milled rice, the government must initiate and support a host of reforms in partnership with the private sector. For instance, to solve the issue of credit shortages for buying and processing paddy rice, the government can provide incentives to commercial banks to increase the loan portfolio for agriculture. At the end of the day, the RGC must keep the farmers themselves in mind. Introducing new technologies or improving agricultural practices can only go so far if they are not accepted and adopted by farmers. Donors and NGOs can play a pivotal role in providing support and facilitating the successful implementation of new policies and projects aimed at improving the agricultural value chain. V. Conclusion Though the current global milled rice market is highly protected, Cambodia is blessed with opportunity to export milled rice in the future thank to the increase in domestic paddy rice production and the potential in the world milled rice trade. So far, the performance of agriculture is outstanding especially in terms of productivity improvement and diversification, due to steadfast efforts of the Royal Government and all stakeholders including the participation of farmers. Rice will mainly mean the stunning landscapes of rice fields, yellow at harvest time, bright and liquid during the rainy season, with shades of green meanwhile. But to a Cambodian consumer and to a Cambodian farmer, as well as to their Government (and to the French economist), rice is the staple crop, a possible â€Å"white gold† as the Prime Minister once put it, and a major part of a poverty reduction strategy. Through, the Prime Minister launched a â€Å"policy paper on the promotion of paddy production and rice exports†. This is a good and promising example of a cluster approach to Cambodias growth strategy. Cambodia is an important but still small rice exporter. Cambodia has been an exporter of rice since 2004, but a large part of the exports was unprocessed (paddy) or even smuggled through the border. Yet Cambodia has abundant land and sits in a region that is both fertile for and in high demand of rice. So far the potential comparative advantage for rice was diluted by various costs, official (e. g. electricity) or unofficial (e. g. llegal check points). Poor coordination of public and private actors was also undermining the potential. For instance weak land titling systems and weak sanitary controls were a constraint that led to limited access to finance, itself contributing to limited value addition. However the significant increase in price in 2008 and again a rebound in the past few weeks has drastically changed the economics of the sector. The policy includes a range of actions, from helping farmers to organize in associations and use better seeds, to improving irrigation systems, developing certification systems, strengthening logistics, and facilitating access to finance. Although I did not get a chance to consult Paul the Octopus as my colleague in Thailand did, the policy makes a strong case for the rapid development of rice exports in Cambodia. Potentiality of Cambodian rice, Cambodia has great potentialities and prospects in paddy and rice production promotion for the supply. Cambodia will be able to produce large quantity of paddy in response to the increasing demand of the world markets. In the future, Cambodia necessarily need to export milled rice in large quantity rather than selling as paddy rice. In fact, high growth in agricultural sector will benefit most Cambodian people who are farmers with their living standard improved. Thus, the Royal Government is committed to promoting paddy rice production and removing all constraints to milled rice export from Cambodia. Indeed, the success of this policy will depend on actual implementation; and the task is complex and hard to achieve, yet it really requires cooperation, coordination and strong commitment especially by way of improving the leadership and management of all concerned ministries/agencies and stakeholders. The new policy recognizes this new environment and promotes: coordination of various actors along the value chain, from the rice fields to the export market; shift from production increase to commercial agriculture; and Organic rice should be promoted country wide Link all producer group into cluster and union Farmers should involved in this industry and form themselves into network Local and national authority support the industry NGO should provide more capacity building training related to value added Government should re-check the policy of land investment ( esp. land concession) Government should rehabilitate the existing irrigation system and build the new ones where the re is lack of irrigation system Government should facilitate to find the loan or provide loan to farmers with low interest rate to ensure that farmers will have enough financial resource to invest in this industry. Both government and NGO must try to look for and expand the market for organic rice products. Recognition of the leading role of the private sector and the critical facilitating role of the State. The Royal Government is strongly convinced that all ministries/agencies of the Royal Government and other stakeholders, including the private sector and development partners, and particularly Cambodian farmers across the country, will join hands in pursuing this mission to bring about development, progress, and prosperity to the Kingdom of Cambodia. Reference 1. Cosslett, Tuyet L. The Economy. Cambodia: A Country Study (Russell R. Ross, editor) Library of Congress Federal Research Division (December 1987) 2. Cambodian Environment Management Project, 1996. Summary report of Phnom Penh and provincial working group meetings on pesticide information and education (Ministry of Environment). 3. 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